V. RELATIONAL BADGES: CRUCIFORM LOVE AND DIVISIVE VIOLENCE
The place in which Paul’s discussion of badges reaches its climax is in the context of internal and external relations. Over against the internal divisions and external violence of the pagans under the control of the powers, and the Jews controlled by their commitment to nationalism, Paul’s communities are united in Christ and committed to cruciform love.
That Paul sees the pagan world as under the governance of overwhelming powers is well documented in his letters.[74] Furthermore, Paul believes that all these rulers, gods, demons, elementals, and principalities, are ultimately under the lordship of two great powers: sin and death.[75] Walter Wink captures something of the all-encompassing power of these lords when he describes pagan life as “dominated existence” under the “Domination System” during the “Domination Epoch.”[76] Within this dominated existence, each person lives to satisfy his or her desires, regardless of the wellbeing of others. This is, for Paul, an ongoing embodiment of the primal sin of Adam: covetousness. Thus, Adamic, fleshy, humanity, lived under the powers, bears covetousness as a badge.[77]
This covetousness is expressed in divisiveness.[78] Paul continually identifies strife, discord, enmity, envy, gossip, and dissensions as essential attributes of the pagan communities and all of these attributes fracture community.[79] This divisive coveting leads inevitably to violence and so, with Adam (the first coveter) lingering behind Ro 7.7-12, it is quite possible that Cain (the first murderer) lingers behind Paul’s argument in Ro 7.13-20.[80] Thus, if Adamic humanity, under the powers of sin and death, is marked by divisiveness, Cainic humanity is marked by violence.
Furthermore, the powers, in Paul’s age, were never imagined to be strictly disembodied spirits; rather, they were always incarnate “in cellulose, or cement, or skin and bones, or an empire, or its mercenary armies.”[81] Thus, by emphasizing the divisiveness and violence of pagan existence, Paul is engaging in a subversive critique of the Roman Empire and its violent conquests. Although Rome claimed that she possessed the “good news” of peace, freedom, justice, and salvation, although the Emperor was viewed as “Lord,” “Savior,” and “Prince of Peace,” Paul reveals the intrinsic violence of Rome by subverting her rhetoric.[82] Over against imperial claims, Paul makes the claim that Caesar’s conquests have only heightened the divisiveness and violence of pagan existence.[83] Thus, just as Adamic humanity is marked by an animalistic existence, the pagan powers are revealed to be horrible, death-dealing beasts.
In making this judgment of life lived under the pagan powers, Paul is well within the critiques established by Judaism. However, Paul then turns the tables on Judaism and argues that Jewish commitments to the ethnic nation of Israel have, in essence, given birth to another divisive death-dealing beast. This point becomes clear in the passages where Paul describes his former way of life under Judaism.[84] Especially worth noting is Paul’s use of the words “Judaism,” “Pharisee,” and “zeal.” “Judaism” is a term coined to express opposition to “Hellenism” and it highlights Jewish separation from the other nations.[85] The word “Pharisees” is rooted in the Aramaic word “perisayya” which means “the separated ones.”[86] Further, as a Pharisee, Paul emulated the “heroes of zeal” who exhibited an unconditional commitment to maintain Israel’s distinctiveness, a readiness to use violence, and a willingness to even use violence against other Jews.[87]
Consequently, Paul’s zeal was “something you did with a knife” against both pagans and “compromised” Jews –- like the early Christian communities.[88] Therefore, the house of Israel was not only divided from the pagan nations, it was a house divided against itself, and violence and death –- although performed for the sake of self-defense and not for the sake of covetous conquest –- reigned just as much in Israel as in the pagan nations. The nation of Israel (precisely in her violent opposition to Rome!) had become a miniature version of Rome, a beastly power in the service of division and death.
Over against the divisive covetous violence of the pagans, and the divisive defensive violence of the Jews, those who are in Christ bear love as their primary relational badge. It is this badge that climactically identifies the Christian community; for, in the praxis of love both the freedom of those who are motivated by the Spirit, and the glory of God’s true children, come to their fullest expression. Love is that which ensures that the other badges of membership in Paul’s communities do not simply deteriorate into “little lapel buttons.”[89]
For this reason, love could have been explored in prior sections.[90] However, because being “in Christ” or “with Christ” is the most frequent title Paul uses to describe the status of his community members, and because love is the most common badge that Paul applies to his community members, it is best to tie love and being in Christ closely together.[91] Furthermore, this connection is strengthened because, for Paul, love is always a Christlike form of love. Therefore, it is the type of love exhibited by those in Christ that most radically distinguishes Paul’s communities from both pagans and Jews.[92]
This is why Michael Gorman is essentially correct in reading Phil 2.5-11 as “Paul’s master story.”[93] In Phil 2, Paul contrasts the covetous self-exaltation of Adam with the self-giving love of Jesus, and emphasizes that it is this form of love that reveals Jesus’ equality with God.[94] Therefore, those who live as God’s restored image-bearers must also bear this badge for, as Wright says, “as God endorses Jesus’ interpretation of what equality with God meant in practice, so he will recognize self-giving love as the true mark of the life of the Spirit.”[95]
Because this love is an embodiment of Christ’s love, it is further demarcated by two essential attributes: its suffering and its redemptive impact. That the love Christ exhibited was a suffering love is most fully revealed on the cross. Therefore, Christian existence, which is lived by those who (continually) die with Christ, is expressed in cruciform love – in suffering.[96] Indeed, this suffering, which might appear to be weakness, becomes, for Paul, the fullest expression of the glory possessed by God’s renewed humanity. Thus, Paul boasts (i.e. finds glory) in his weakness and his sufferings because they mark him as a member of those in Christ.[97] Of course, for Paul this is not simply the glorification of suffering qua suffering; suffering becomes a manifestation of glory because it becomes the means by which the victory won by Christ becomes effective within the world. As Rudolph Bultmann argues, to simply limit suffering to “an affliction that will one day be followed by happiness… deprives suffering of its existentiall [sic] meaning.”[98] Suffering is the means by which the benefits of Christ’s death are extended to others.[99] Therefore, Paul’s communities are marked by the willingness to “bear the pain and the shame of the world in its own body, that the world may be healed.”[100]
Consequently, this redemptive suffering love is expressed in the peaceable nature of Paul’s communities. God is, for Paul, the “God of peace,” Paul opens all of his letters wishing peace upon the recipients, and he consistently exhorts his communities to be defined by peace.[101] Inwardly, this peaceable love is expressed through unity. Over against the internal divisions of both pagans and Jews, Paul is adamant that his communities must be marked by an all-embracing unity and the absence of divisions.[102] Although Paul most commonly speaks of this as the unity of Jews and Gentiles, he is also clear that this is a unity that spans social boundaries between slaves and free, economic boundaries between the poor and the rich, and gender boundaries between men and women. Indeed, it is this unity that proclaims to the powers that Jesus is the true Saviour and Lord.[103] Furthermore, it is this emphasis upon unity that reveals that Christian freedom is also cruciform –- it is the freedom to serve and love all of those who are in Christ.[104]
However, the outward expression of Paul’s call to peaceable love is even more radical. Over against pagans who are marked by violent conquests, and Jews who are marked by violent self-defense, Christians are to be identified by their nonviolent love of enemies. These, “enemies” are those -– both pagans and Jews –- who violently persecute Paul and his communities.[105] In response to these enemies, Paul regularly asserts that his communities must love their enemies, and thereby suffer violence without returning violence. The response to violence, which identifies Paul’s community, is, negatively, a refusal to repay evil for evil or to enact vengeance, and, positively, a willingness to bless instead curse, to return good for evil, to conciliate, to persevere, and to forgive.[106] Here a radical shift has occurred as Saul the Pharisee has been transformed into Paul the Apostle. Paul’s prior zeal, which manifested itself in violent self-defense, has now been transformed into the zeal of “agape-love,” and his zeal to kill has become a zeal to die.[107] In this way, Paul thoroughly dethrones all attempts to justify sacred violence, as he elevates love, which comes to its most glorious expression in the love of enemies.[108] Further, as Wink suggests, it must be noted that the very unity of Paul’s communities, as Jews and Gentiles together, points to a radical outworking of this love of enemies.[109] Having begun with this unity, Paul’s communities must persevere and continue to show love to those who still persecute them.
Therefore, over against the pagans, whose service of the powers is identified by their covetous divisiveness and violence, and over against the Jews, who have turned the nation of Israel into another beastly power through their internal divisions and violent self-defense, the communities of those who are in Christ are identified by the praxis of cruciform love, which is expressed in peaceful unity and the nonviolent love of enemies.
VI. CONCLUSION
Rudolph Bultmann once asserted that Paul describes no unmistakably distinguishable Christian action; rather, he argued, Paul simply adopted the ethics of “popular philosophy” and “bourgeois morality.”[110] This paper, having demonstrated that Paul provides clear distinguishing identity-markers between Christians, pagans, and Jews, at the levels of worship, inspiration, ontology, and relationship, can only conclude that Paul would be shocked by such an assertion. Perhaps, when divided and taken individually, evidence of these badges can be found in other communities. However, Paul is clear that it is only the Christian community that exhibits these badges in toto. Furthermore, Paul is adamant that the Christian community must exhibit these badges in toto. The contemporary Church would do well to reflect upon these things as she continues to engage in Paul’s mission amongst both Gentiles and Jews.
________
[74] 1 Cor 10.20; 15.26; 2 Cor 4.4; Gal 4.8-9; Eph 6.12; Col 1.13; 2.15, 20. On the language of the powers in the New Testament cf. Walter Wink Naming the Powers: The Language of Power in the New Testament (The Powers Series Vol 1; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984), 13-96, 151-65; Unmasking the Powers (The Powers Series Vol 2; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1986), passim.
[75] Cf. Ro 5.4, 17, 21-6.23; 7.7-8.11, 38; 1 Cor 15.54-56; Dunn, Christian Liberty, 56; Ridderbos, 95-99.
[76] Wink substitutes these phrases for Paul’s usage of “sarx,” “kosmos,” and “aion” in order to engage in some rather provocative exegesis; cf. Engaging the Powers: Discernment and Resistance in a World of Domination (The Powers Series Vol 3; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 52-62.
[77] Ro 7.7-8; 13.9; 1 Cor 5.10-11; 6.10; 2 Cor 9.5; Eph 5.5.
[78] Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 635-36; Marshall, 288-90; Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 29.
[79] Ro 1.29-30; 1 Cor 5.9-11; 6.9-10; 2 Cor 12.20; Gal 5.20-21; Col 3.5-8.
[80] Cf. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 226-30.
[81] Wink, Unmasking the Powers, 5.
[82] Cf. Neil Elliott, Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle (The Bible and Liberation Series; Maryknoll: Orbis, 1994), 189-90; Wright, Paul, 63, 74; What Saint Paul Really Said, 88; “Paul and Caesar: A New Reading of Romans” in A Royal Priesthood? The Use of the Bible Ethically and Politically: A Dialogue with Oliver O’Donovan (Scripture and Hermeneutics Series Vol 3; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 173-93.
[83] For two commentaries that develop this theme in some detail cf. Peter Oakes, Philippians: From People to Letter (Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Brian J. Walsh & Sylvia C. Keesmat, Colossians Remixed: Subverting the Empire (Downers Grove: IVP, 2004).
[84] Cf. Ro 10.2-3; 1 Cor 15.9; Gal 1.13-14; Phil 3.4-6.
[85] Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 147-48.
[86] Bruce, 46.
[87] Bornkamm, 12-15; Bruce, 45-48; Donaldson, 285-86; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 350-53; Gorman, Apostle of the Crucified Lord, 53-54; Hurtado, 94; Willi Marxsen, New Testament Foundations for Christian Ethics (trans. O. C. Dean, Jr.; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 147-49; Matera, 181-82; Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 26-27. The divisions within Second Temple Judaism (divisions between, for examples, Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots, Diaspora Jews, and the “people of the land”) have been well documented and have led some to speak of Second Temple “Judaisms” and others to speak of “variegated” nomism.
[88] Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 27.
[89] Cf. Krister Stendahl, Paul Among Jews and Gentiles and Other Essays (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1976), 55-56.
[90] Indeed, a neatly systematized theology would not reflect Paul’s theology which is occasional and not systematic. Thus, the categories employed in this article are, inevitably, somewhat arbitrary.
[91] Taken together “in Christ” and “with Christ” are used over 90 times in Paul’s epistles, and “love” is referenced just as many times.
[92] Cf. Dewar, 127, 133; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 495, 653-57; Gorman, Cruciformity, 156-57; Matera, 142-43; Ridderbos, 293-301; Schrage, 212; Schweitzer, 307. Some have argued that being in Christ is an essential badge of membership in Paul’s letters (cf. Donaldson, 236-48, 171-73, 284; Matera, 166, 175-83; Schweitzer, 123; Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 196-97); however, it is the contention of this article that it is the love exhibited by those in Christ that functions as a badge in Paul’s communities.
[93] Gorman, Cruciformity, 164-68. Gorman argues that Phil 2.5-11 is the story that underpins all of Paul’s theology: “[t]he narrative of the crucified and exalted Christ is the normative life-narrative within which the community’s own life-narrative takes place and by which it is shaped” (44, emph removed); cf. Hays, 27; William S. Kurz, S. J., “Kenotic Imitation of Paul and Christ in Philippians 2 and 3” in Discipleship in the New Testament (Ed. Fernando F. Segovia; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1985), 103-26.
[94] Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 58-88.
[95] Ibid., 87.
[96] Cf. Ro 5.3; 6.3-8; 8.17-38; 1 Cor 4.9-16; 12.26; 13.5; 2 Cor 1.3-7; 4.7-18; 6.3-13; 7.4; 8.2; 11.18-33; Gal 2.19-20; 3.4; 5.11, 24; 6.12-14. 17; Phil 1.7; 3.8, 10; 4.12, 14; Col 1.24; 2.20; 3.3; 1 Thes 2.2, 14; 3.3-4, 7; 2 Thes 1.4-6. Therefore, Bornkamm concludes that suffering, for Paul, “was not exceptional but exemplified what life in Christ meant” (172); cf. Schweitzer, 141-54.
[97] Cf. Ro 8; 1 Cor 1.26-28; 2 Cor 4.7-18; 6.3-10; 11.18-33; Becker, 278-83; Bornkamm, 169-70, 181; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 438; Gorman, Cruciformity, 301; Hays, 25-26; Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 190; What Saint Paul Really Said, 143-45. Thus, Kasemann concludes that, “[w]e cannot share in Christ’s glory except by bearing his cross after him on earth” (Jesus Means Freedom [trans. Frank Clarke; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968], 71) and Gorman concludes that “the very thing (suffering) that suggest that glory is distant is, in fact, the proof of its proximity” (Cruciformity, 347; emph removed).
[98] Rudolph Bultmann, “Man Between the Times According to the New Testament” in Existence and Faith: Shorter Writings of Rudolph Bultmann (Ed & trans. Schubert M. Odgen; The Fontana Library of Theology and Philosophy 10/6; London: Collins Clear-Type Press, 1964), 315.
[99] Gorman, Cruciformity, 203.
[100] Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 256.
[101] On the God “of peace” cf. Ro 15.33; 16.20; 1 Cor 14.33; 2 Cor 13.11; Eph 2.14; Phil 4.9; Col 1.20; 1 Thes 5.23; 2 Thes 3.16. For Paul’s openings cf. Ro 1.7; 1 Cor 1.3; 2 Cor 1.2; Gal 1.3; Eph 1.2; Phil 1.2; Col 1.2; 1 Thes 1.1; 2 Thes 1.2; and on Paul’s more general references to peace as an essential element of his communities cf. Ro 2.10; 3.17; 5.1; 8.6; 12.18; 14.17, 19; 15.12; 1 Cor 7.13; 2 Cor 13.11; Gal 5.22; Eph 2.15, 17; 4.3; 6.15, 23 Phil 4.7; Col 3.15; 1 Thes 5.13.
[102] Cf. Ro 3.29-30; 12.4-5, 10, 16; 14.1-15.7; 1 Cor 1.10; 3; 6.1-11, 17; 8-10; 11.23-34; 12-14; Gal 3.26-29; 5.13-15; 6.2, 10; Eph 2.11-22; 4.1-6, 14-16, 31-32; 5.21; Phil 1.27; 2.1-5; Col 3.8-15; 1 Thes 3.12; 4.9; 5.11-15; 2 Thes 2.3; Philem. To fracture unity is to move outside of those who are in Christ, which is why, in 1 Cor 11, Paul argues that those who have done so are falling ill and dying. To be divided is to come, once again, under the power of death.
[103] Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 146; cf. Donaldson, 82-86.
[104] Cf. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 159-60; Kasemann, Jesus Means Freedom, 66, 73, 80; Stendahl, 61.
[105] Cf. Ro 8.35-36; 12.10; 2 Cor 6.4-5; 11.23-27; 12.10; Phil 1.29-30; 1 Thes 1.6; 2.14; 2 Thes 1.4; Wright, The New Testament and the People of God, 449.
[106] Cf. Ro 12.14-21; 1 Cor 4.12-13; 13.4-7; 2 Cor 6.4, 6; 11.19-20; Gal 5.20-22; Phil 4.5; Col 3.22-25; 1 Thes 5.15. Gordon Zerbe traces these themes in Paul’s letters and concludes that Paul upholds an “ethic of nonretaliation and peace” (“Paul’s Ethic of Nonretaliation and Peace” in The Love of Enemy and Nonretaliation in the New Testament [Ed. Willard M. Swartley; Louisville: WJKP, 1992], 179-80).
[107] Cf. Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 135; Gorman, Cruciformity, 27-28. This then makes good sense of the passages where Paul speaks positively of zeal; cf. Ro 10.2; 12.11; 1 Cor 14.12; 2 Cor 7.7, 11; 8.22; 9.2; Gal 4.18.
[108] Cf. Elliot, 169-74; Schrage, 213.
[109] Wink, Engaging the Powers, 117. Wink is commenting on Eph 2.15.
[110] Rudolph Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament: Volume 2 (trans. Kendrick Grobel; London: SCM Press, 1955), 225-26. Others, like Willi Marxsen, have continued the trajectory of Bultmann’s thought and insist that “we can speak of authentic Christian action only when it is performed by authentic Christians (Marxsen, 225).

IV. ONTOLOGICAL BADGES: CHILDREN OF GOD, OF ADAM, AND OF ABRAHAM (ACCORDING TO THE FLESH)
The Spirit does not only provide a new inspiration for Paul’s communities, the Spirit also creates a fundamental transformation within the nature of the people who inhabit Paul’s communities. Indeed, Paul believes that his communities are marked by an ontological status that is notably different than the status of both pagans and Jews. Christians are, according to Paul, God’s true renewed humanity, whereas pagans are those who have lost their humanity, and Jews are those who have failed to mature as humans. Each of these groups is granted its own unique status because Paul traces a very different lineage for each group: Christians are children of God, pagans are children of Adam, and Jews are children of Abraham (according to the flesh).
The pagans are those whose humanity is rooted in the fallen nature of their forefather Adam.[46] Just like their forefather, the pagans have lost their humanity because, instead of reigning over creation, they have allowed creation to reign over them. Thus, they become like the animals and lose their true human identity. Nowhere is this more evident in Paul’s writings than in Ro 1.22-23, 25. Of course, Paul is well rooted in Jewish critiques of paganism when he writes this passage. The prophets continually warned Israel that those who worship animals become like animals, and those who worship worthless idols become worthless like the idols.[47]
Therefore, Adamic humanity is identified by its loss of “glory.”[48] Humanity’s “glory,” according to Paul, is that it bears the image of God. However, humanity loses this glory when it reworks itself in the image of animals. After Adam, humans have become “broken but not shattered mirrors,” no longer fully reflecting God’s image.[49] This loss of glory is most explicitly expressed in the sexual immorality practiced by pagans.[50] Thus, immediately after describing the status of Adamic humanity, Paul goes on to describe the sexual practices of pagans in Ro 1.24, 26-27.[51] Ironically, it is in these things that the pagans glory, for they boast of their immorality.[52] This is why, in 1 Cor 5.1-8, Paul is horrified to discover that his community is boasting and glorying in an act of immorality that does not even exist among the pagans. It is Paul’s desire that the perpetrator be removed from his community, because he is exhibiting the wrong badge – his sexual practices denote a loss of glory and mark him as a member of the pagan communities.[53] Therefore, Adamic status, the loss of glory, and sexual immorality, all function together as a badge of membership within pagan communities.[54]
The Jews, however, are not primarily defined as descendants of Adam; they are identified as children of Abraham, according to the flesh. That Paul sees the Jews as related to Abraham strictly through the flesh is rather telling. Once again, Paul is arguing that Jewish status has become united with pagan status. Thus, after critiquing the pagans in Ro 1, Paul offers a similarly damning critique of the Jews in Ro 2, and then concludes in Ro 3.23 that “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” Just like the pagans, those who are descendants of Abraham according to the flesh are also demarcated by the loss of glory. However, this Jewish loss of glory is primarily exhibited in a different way than the way in which the pagan loss of glory is exhibited.[55] The Jewish loss of glory is exhibited in their boasting (i.e. glorying) in the flesh – in their ethnicity. Once again, the irony is that their glory is, in fact, their shame.[56] Thus, in Ro 5.12-21 and 7.7-13, the Jews are put on the side of Adamic humanity.[57] Consequently, in Ro 9.6-8, Paul concludes that “they are not all Israel who are descended from Israel… it is not the children of the flesh who are children of God.”
Paul is able to see that glorying in Jewish ethnicity and “works of the law” no longer relates to the glory of God’s image bearers, because he believes that something new has been inaugurated by Jesus and the Spirit. In Gal 3-4, Paul makes it clear that the Jewish badges were useful for a humanity not yet come of age but, now that the time has come to mature, to remain under such things is to remain as immature, not fully developed humans.[58] Thus, in 2 Cor 3, Paul argues that the (veiled) glory that was present to the Jews, has now faded altogether and been superseded by a far greater (unveiled) glory. Consequently, the Jewish status as immature humans (that end up being like Adam) is exhibited in Jewish glorying in their ethnicity.
In contrast to both the pagans and the Jews, Paul argues that his communities are defined as God’s true, renewed humanity, and it is they who are called the “children of God.” This is so because Christ is the second Adam.[59] As the second Adam, Christ becomes the truly human one, the one who is the lasting image and glory of God.[60] Thus, all who are in the community of Christ are adopted as God’s children and heirs.[61] Consequently, God becomes the Father of all believers, and not just the Father of Jesus.[62] Furthermore, being adopted as God’s children causes a radical ontological transformation to occur –- believers become “new creations” and are restored to a truly human identity.[63] Thus, genuine humanness results from worship of the one true God, and thus the prayers of Paul’s communities are addressed to “Abba, Father.”[64]
This true humanity bears glory as its outward expression.[65] This is the glory of God’s restored image bearers, who are remade in the image of Christ, the Lord of glory.[66] Furthermore, the Shekinah –- the Spirit of God’s glory –- now resides in believers and transforms them into God’s glorious temple.[67] Thus, when Paul calls his community members “children of light” or “lights in the world,” he is speaking of the manifest glory of God’s children, over against the pagans who are “of darkness” and practice the “deeds of darkness” –- and over against the Jews, whose glory has faded away into darkness.[68] Nowhere is Paul more adamant that his communities are marked by glory than in 2 Cor 3.7-18.[69] The members of Paul’s communities are mirrors reflecting the image of the Lord, as they are transformed from glory to glory.
That the children of God bear the glory of God’s image as an outward visible badge is clear from Paul’s letters. What, then, are the characteristics that serve to identify this glory? The first characteristic, which has already been mentioned, is holiness. Temple language is holiness language, and, just as membership within pagan communities is marked by sexual immorality, membership in Paul’s communities is marked by sexual purity, self-control, and abstinence from immorality.[70] Secondly, over against the immaturity that marks the Jewish communities, Paul’s communities are marked by their maturity, which is manifested in their renewed minds, their knowledge of God’s will and their awareness of revealed mysteries.[71] Thirdly, because Paul’s communities exist within an age of eschatological tension, the glory of believers finds expression in hope. Although the Spirit provides a down-payment of glory, the members of Paul’s communities “exult in hope of the glory of God” and “hope for what [they] do not see.”[72] This hope distinguishes Paul’s communities from the pagans who have “no hope” and from the Jews who maintain a false hope.[73]
Therefore, over against the pagans who are children of Adam marked by the loss of glory which finds expression in sexual immorality, and over against the Jews who are fleshy children of Abraham marked by a faded glory which finds expression in immaturity, Paul’s communities are children of God marked by glory which finds expression in holiness, wisdom, and hope.
________
[46] Ro 5.12-21; 1 Cor 15.20-22; cf. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 80-101.
[47] Cf. 1 Sa 12.21; 2 Ki 17.15; Jer 2.5; 10.8; Hab 2.18-19; Zech 10.2. Consequently, Wright is quite correct to conclude that “idolatry is… seriously bad for the health of your humanity” (What Said Paul Really Said, 138).
[48] This also continues the Jewish prophetic critique of the nations; cf. Ps 106.20; Jer 2.11.
[49] Ben Witherington III, Paul’s Narrative Thought World: The Tapestry of Tragedy and Triumph (Louisville: WJKP, 1994), 10-15.
[50] Matera, 131, 144-45.
[51] In other passages, Paul regularly highlights immorality as a badge of pagan membership, and often sexual immorality is given the place of priority, cf. 1 Cor 5.9-11; 6.9; Gal 5.19-20; Eph 5.5; Col 3.5.
[52] Cf. Ro 1.30.
[53] Thus, Paul goes on to say, in 1 Cor 6.15-20, that one cannot be joined both to a prostitute and to Christ. If one is joined to a prostitute one becomes a member of the pagan communities.
[54] The connection of these three elements is also a part of the Jewish prophetic critique of the pagans. Cf. esp. Ez 16.17 et passim.
[55] However, in Ro 2, Paul certainly seems to think that something of the pagan sexual immorality is also present among the Jews. This also follows the pattern set by Ezekiel, who accuses the Jews of following precisely the same pattern as the pagans; cf. Ez 23.17 et passim.
[56] Phil 3.19; cf. Ro 2.23; Gal 6.13; Eph 2.9.
[57] Cf. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 97-99, 115-18; Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 37, 237.
[58] Cf. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 143-50, 388.
[59] Cf. Ro 5.12-21; 1 Cor 15.20-22; W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Elements in Pauline Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 41, 49; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 200-202, 241-42; Ridderbos, 65-61; Witherington, 141-46.
[60] Cf. Phil 2.5-11; Col 1.15.
[61] Cf. Ro 8.14-17, 19, 21; 9.26; 2 Cor 6.18; Gal 3.26, 4.1-7; Eph 5.1; Phil 2.15.
[62] Cf. Ro 1.7; 15.6; 1 Cor 1.3; 8.6; 15.24; 2 Cor 1.2-3; 11.31; Gal 1.1-4; 4.6; Eph 1.2-3, 17; 4.6; Eph 1.2-3, 17; 4.6; 5.20; 6.23; Phil 2.1; 2.11; 4.20; Col 1.2; 1 Thes 1.1-3; 3.11, 13; 2 Thes 1.1-2; 2.16. In this regard Hays is correct to note that Paul never refers to all humanity as “children of God”; rather, all are God’s creatures, but only those who belong to the Christian community are marked as God’s children (58 n48).
[63] Cf. 1 Cor 2.16-17; 2 Cor 5.17; Gal 6.15; Eph 2.10, 15; 4.24; Col 3.10.
[64] Cf. Ro 8.15; Gal 4.6; Becker, 270; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 437; Fee, Paul, the Spirit and the People of God, 89-90; Michael Gorman, Apostle of the Crucified Lord: A Theological Introduction to Paul & His Letters (Grand Rapids Eerdmans, 2004), 119; Meeks, 169; Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 139-40.
[65] Gorman, Cruciformity, 335; Kasemann, Perspectives on Paul, 125; Ridderbos; Witherington, 247, 272-78.
[66] Cf. 1 Cor 2.6-7; 2 Cor 1.20; 4.4, 6; 8.23; Eph 1.5-6, 18; 5.27; Phil 3.3, 21; 1 Thes 2.12, 20; 2 Thes 2.14.
[67] Cf. 1 Cor 3.16-17; 6.19-20; 2 Cor 6.16-18; Eph 2.19-22.
[68] Cf. Ro 13.12; 2 Cor 3.7-18; 4.6; 6.14; Eph 5.8-9; Phil 2.15; Col 1.12; 1 Thes 5.5.
[69] Cf. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 175-85; What Saint Paul Really Said, 123.
[70] Cf. Ro 13.13; 1 Cor 5.1-8; 6.13, 15-20; 7.5, 9; 9.25; 2 Cor 6.6; 11.2-3; 12.21; Gal 5.23; Eph 5.3; Phil 4.8; Col 3.5; 1 Thes 4.3.
[71] Cf. Ro 8.6, 27; 11.25, 33-34; 12.1-2; 16.19, 25; 1 Cor 1.17-31; 2.5-16; 4.10; 15.51; Gal 1.4; Eph 1.5-11, 17-18; 3.3-10; 5.15, 17, 32; 6.6; Co 1.9, 26-28; 2.2-3; 3.16; 4.3; 1 Thes 4.3; 5.18; contrast Ro 1.22, 28; 2.18; 7.23, 25; 1 Cor 3.18-21; 2 Cor 1.12; Phil 3.19; Col 2.18, 23.
[72] Ro 5.1-5; 8.24-25; cf. Ro 12.12; 15.13; 1 Cor 13.7, 13; 15.19; 2 Cor 1.7, 10; 3.12; Gal 5.5; Eph 1.18; 4.4; Phil 1.19-20; Col 1.5, 23, 27; 1 Thes 5.8; 2 Thes 2.16.
[73] Cf. Eph 2.12; 1 Thes 4.13; Ro 2.1-3.

III. INSPIRATIONAL BADGES: SPIRIT, FLESH, LAW
The Spirit does not simply inspire Christian confession. Rather, the Spirit becomes a fundamental identity marker of Paul’s communities in its own right because it inspires all areas of Christian life and faith.[21] Hence, Christian existence is lived according to the Spirit and is distinguished from pagan life which is lived according to the flesh, and Jewish life which is lived according to the law.[22] Consequently, the outward signs that demarcate membership within each of these communities are the fruit of the Spirit, the works of the flesh, and the works of the law.
Pagan existence, according to Paul, is lived according to the flesh.[23] Therefore, the flesh becomes the motivating force behind the actions of the pagans. Life in the flesh is lived in accordance to the flesh and is defined by works of the flesh. This, then, inspires a new perspective on Gal 5.12-21. Immediately following his critique of Jewish badges of membership, Paul turns the discussion to “works of the flesh.” At this point of his argument, Paul has not drifted into a tangential pastoral aside. Rather, Paul has moved naturally from discussing Jewish badges (“works of the law”) to discussing pagan badges (“works of the flesh”). Indeed, the so-called “vice lists” that recur throughout Paul’s letters should be read not as ethical asides but as references to pagan badges of identity.[24] When these lists are studied, three works stand out in particular: idolatry, sexual immorality, and covetousness.[25] Pagan existence according to the flesh is thus defined by lawlessness – pagans are those “without the law.”[26] As such, the pagans are identified as licentious “sinners,” “rebels,” and “enemies of God.”[27]
Over against the pagans, members of the Jewish communities are those who live according to the law and are thus demarcated by “works of the law.”[28] The “works of the law” are an essential badge of Jewish identity, and one that reinforces the separation of ethnic Israel from the pagan nations.[29] As with the “works of the flesh,” there are three works that are especially visible expressions of this badge: circumcision, food laws, and the Jewish calendar.[30]
However, just as Paul argues that Jewish worship has become compromised with idolatry, so also Paul argues that Jewish “works of the law” have become compromised with “works of the flesh.”[31] Consequently, life that is lived according to the law is, for Paul, just as unacceptable as life lived according to the flesh. Therefore, clinging to “works of the law” as a fundamental badge of one’s identity is a grave mistake; to try and live this way, after Jesus and the Spirit, would be to reduce one’s lived existence to the level of paganism.[32]
Over against life lived according to the flesh or the law, Paul argues that Christians are defined by life according to the Spirit. This life is identified by the “fruit of the Spirit” and the “works of faith,” which contrast both the works of the flesh and the works of the law.[33] Once again, there are three outward expressions of this lifestyle: freedom, fruit, and faith(fullness).
Over against the pagans who are enslaved to sin and death, and over against the Jews who are enslaved to the law and its punishments, Christians are defined by their freedom from sin, death, the law, and the condemnation of the law.[34] Freedom is an essential mark of Christian existence as Paul makes clear in 2 Cor 7.23: “where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty.”[35]
This Christian freedom is distinct from both pagan lawlessness and Jewish lawfulness; life lived according to the Spirit is lived as the third alternative to licentiousness and legalism.[36] This becomes clear when the fruit of the Spirit is seen as another essential expression of the badge of the Spirit. In Gal 5.22-23, after describing Jewish and pagan badges, Paul goes on to describe a Christian badge: the fruit of the Spirit, which is love.[37] Through the Spirit, Christians are freed to love, which is what it means to fulfill the “law of Christ.”[38] However, while Paul gives priority to love there are at least two more expressions of the Spirit-badge within Christians: faith(fullness) and hope.[39]
Dunn, Wright, and others, have correctly emphasized that Paul’s references to faith generally belong within Paul’s discussion of Christian badges.[40] Of course, it is only the Spirit that produces this faith (just as the Spirit produces the confession of faith), and it is this faith that defines, and unites, the people of God as one people.[41] However, this faith is not only expressed through public confession, it is also expressed through public action. Hence, the praxis of faithfulness cannot be divorced from the profession of faith. This is why, in 1 Cor 12.5, Paul demands that the Corinthians prove whether they are indeed in the faith.[42] Thus, Christian freedom is not only expressed in love, it is also expressed in obedience to God.[43] Life in the Holy Spirit is demarcated by holy living.[44] This separates the Christians from pagan disobedience and rebellion, but it also separates Christians from Jewish compromised obedience. This is so because the Spirit accomplishes the circumcision of the heart which enables the fulfillment of the law, and Jewish circumcision becomes an expression of life lived in the flesh.[45]
Therefore, over against the pagans who bear the badge of the flesh, which is expressed through idolatry, covetousness and sexual immorality, and over against the Jews who bear the badge of the law, which is expressed through circumcision, food laws, and the Jewish calendar, Christians bear the badge of the Spirit, which is expressed through freedom, fruit, and faith(fullness).
________
[21] Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 425; Fee, Paul, the Spirit and the People of God, 87-89, 103; Ernst Kasemann, Perspectives on Paul (The New Testament Library Series; London: SCM Press, 1971), 122; Wolfgang Schrage, The Ethics of the New Testament (trans. David E. Green; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 178.
[22] Cf. Ro 8.1-13.
[23] F. F. Bruce, Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), 203-206; Gordon D. Fee, God’s Empowering Presence: The Holy Spirit in the Letters of Paul (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1994), 817.
[24] Cf. Ro 1.21-31; 13.12-14; 1 Cor 5.11; 6.9-10; 2 Cor 12.2; Eph 4.31; 5.3; Col 3.5-8. Also significant in this regard is the way in which Paul uses the expression “works of the darkness” in Ro 13.12 in a parallel way to his usage of “works of the flesh” in Gal 5.19.
[25] On Paul’s focus on these three works in particular cf. Lindsay Dewar, An Outline of New Testament Ethics (London: University of London Press, 1949), 147-49; Frank J. Matera, New Testament Ethics: The Legacies of Jesus and Paul (Louisville: WJKP, 1996), 148-50. Idolatry was studied in Section II of this article. Sexual immorality and covetousness will be explored in more detail in Sections IV and V respectively.
[26] Cf. Ro 2.12, 14.
[27] Cf. Ro 1.21-31; 5.8, 10; 2 Cor 5.18-19; Eph 2.3; Col 1.21.
[28] The contested passages on “works of the law” are Ro 3.20, 27-30; 4; 9.11, 30-10.4; 11.6; Gal 2.16; 3.2, 5, 10-20.
[29] Cf. Terence L. Donaldson, Paul and the Gentiles: Remapping the Apostle’s Convictional World (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1997), 120-31; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 355-63; Richard B. Hays, The Moral Vision of the New Testament: Community, Cross, New Creation. A Contemporary Introduction to New Testament Ethics (San Francisco: HarpersSanFrancisco, 1996), 33; N. T. Wright, The New Testament and the People of God (Christian Origins and the Question of God Series Vol 1; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 237-38; The Climax of the Covenant, 150, 163-65, 173; What Saint Paul Really Said, 112; Matera, 156.
[30] On circumcision cf. Ro 2.25-29; 4; 1 Cor 7-18-19; Gal 2.3-4, 11-16; 5.1-16; 6.12;-13; Eph 2.10-13; Phil 3.2-3; Col 2.11; on calendar cf. Ro 14.5-6; Gal 2.11-16; 4.9-11; Col 216; on food cf. Ro 14.14-15; 1 Cor 8-10; Gal 2.11-16; Col 2.16.
[31] Cf. Ro 2; 7.5-8.13; Gal 2.16; 6.13.
[32] Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 144; cf. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 143-59.
[33] Cf. Gal 5.22-23; 1 Thes 1.3.
[34] Cf. Ro 2.28-29; 6.12-23; 8; 1 Cor 7.23; 2 Cor 3.17; Gal 2.4; Gal 4.1-11, 22-5.1; Phil 3; Rudolph Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament: Volume 1 (trans. Kendrick Grobel; London: SCM Press, 1955), 330-52; James D. G. Dunn, Christian Liberty: A New Testament Perspective (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 66, 71-73 et passim; The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 388, 434-35.
[35] Cf. Gal 5.1. Thus, Allen Verhey concludes that, for Paul freedom is probably the “most fundamental” of Christian values (The Great Reversal: Ethics in the New Testament [Vancouver: Regent College Publishing, 1984], 107-108). While the language of values is useful, this article argues that it is better to define freedom as one of the badges of Christian identity.
[36] Cf Bornkamm, 185-86. Bornkamm calls Christian freedom “the middle ground” between legalism and licentiousness, but it is better to understand Christian freedom as an altogether distinct alternative, and not as some sort of mediating position. This is so, in part, because this article understands “legalism” to be a lifestyle that is law-inspired (as opposed to understanding “legalism” as a form of works’ righteousness).
[37] It is significant that the word “fruit” is singular. Paul is not talking about the “fruits” of the Spirit, but the singular fruit of love, which finds expression in the other attributes mentioned in this passage (hence, Gal 5.22-23 is comparable to 1 Cor 13, in that they both explain what love is). It should be noted that the reading of Gal 5 provided in this article drastically contradicts the conclusions of those who assert that Paul’s paraenetic material in Gal (and in Paul’s epistles in general) has little or nothing to do with Paul’s theology (cf. Hans Dieter Betz, Galatians: A Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the Churches in Galatia [Hermeneia Series; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979], 254, 292; Martin Dibelius, A Fresh Approach to the New Testament and Early Christian Literature [The International Library of Christian Knowledge; London: Ivor Nicholson and Watson, 1949], 217-20).
[38] Cf. Ro 8; 1 Cor 9.21; Gal 6.2; J. Christiaan Becker, Paul the Apostle: The Triumph of God in Life and Thought (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1980), 270; Bruce, 210-11; Gorman, Cruciformity, 55; Albert Schweitzer, The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (trans. William Montgomery; New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1931), 298-99, 303; Verhey, 108.
[39] Faith, hope, and love are repeatedly mentioned together in Paul’s epistles; cf. Ro 5.1-5; 1 Cor 13.2, 13; 2 Cor 8.7; Gal 2.20; 5.5-6, 22-23; Eph 1.15; 3.16-19; 6.23; Col 1.4-5; 1 Thes 1.3; 3.6, 13; 5.8, 32-33; 2 Thes 2.16-17. On hope see Section IV; for a further exposition on love see Section V.
[40] Cf. Donaldson, 162; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 371-72; Fee, God’s Empowering Presence, 815-15; Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 3, 36, 156; “Putting Paul Together Again: Towards a Synthesis of Pauline Theology (1 and 2 Thessalonians, Philippians, and Philemon)” in Pauline Theology Vol 1: Thessalonians, Philippians, Galatians, Philemon. Ed. Jouette M. Bassler (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991) 185, 195; What Saint Paul Really Said, 113-33; Paul, 30-32.
[41] Cf. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 635-38; Fee, Paul, the Spirit and the People of God, 86.
[42] Herman Ridderbos, Paul: An Outline of his Theology (trans. John Richard De Witt; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 232.
[43] As Schrage says, “those who are free are those who are obedient, and those who are obedient are those who are free” (176).
[44] Cf. Dewar, 99-101; Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle, 634-58; Fee, Paul, the Spirit and the People of God, 105, 108-109; God’s Empowering Presence, 880-81; Gorman, Cruciformity, 102; Kasemann, Perspectives on Paul, 124; Marshall, 270; Matera, 141; Ridderbos 237; Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 143-44, 160; Paul, 124. This, then, makes good sense of the places where Paul speak quite positively of good works, cf. Ro 2.6-7; 1 Cor 3.13-15; 15.58; 2 Cor 9.8; 11.15; Gal 6.4; Eph 2.10; 2 Thes 2.17.
[45] Cf. Deut 10.16; Jer 4.4, 9.25f, Ez 44.9; Ro 2.28-29; 5.5; 2 Cor 1.22; 3.3, 6; 4.6; Gal 4.6; Eph 1.18; 3.17; Phil 4.7; Col 3.15; 1 Thes 3.13; 2 Thes 3.5.

II. THE FOUNDATIONAL BADGE: THE OBJECT OF WORSHIP
The object of worship is, for Paul, the most foundational distinguishing badge between his Christian communities and pagan communities, on the one hand, and Jewish communities, on the other. The God who is the object of Christian belief and confession is a markedly different God than the God confessed by both Jews and pagans, and the worship of this Christian God serves as an “identity-marker,” as a badge of those who belong within Paul’s communities.
Over against the polytheism or pantheism of the pagan religions, Paul maintains a Jewish emphasis upon monotheism.[5] Thus, in 1 Cor 8.4, he argues that the idols count as nothing because “there is no God but one.”[6] Furthermore, this Pauline monotheism also stands in stark distinction from certain Hellenistic philosophies that embrace monotheism as a means of advancing syncretism and tolerance within a pluralistic society.[7] Within his Gentile mission, Paul embraces exclusionary monotheism as a badge that defines his communities over and against the pagan communities, who carry “idolatry” as a fundamental badge of their identity.[8]
However, the monotheistic worship of Paul’s communities is also to be distinguished from the equally exclusive monotheism of Judaism. This is so because the Christ-event and Pentecost cause Paul to rework his understanding of monotheism in three significant ways. First, in Paul’s epistles, “we see a remarkable ‘overlap’ in functions between God and Jesus, and also in the honorific rhetoric used to refer to them both.”[9] Thus, “[t]he story of Jesus is not a mere illustration of the divine identity; Jesus himself and his story are intrinsic to the divine identity.”[10] Therefore, passages like Col 1.15-20 and Phil 2.5-11 ascribe to Jesus attributes and roles that, within Judaism, are reserved for the one God alone. Indeed, in 1 Cor 8.6, Paul goes so far as to rework the Shema, the ultimate Jewish profession of the oneness of God, in order to include Jesus within that oneness.[11] This, then, relates to the second point: YHWH is now redefined as the Father of Jesus, who raised Jesus from the dead.[12] This transformation of God’s identity in light of the sonship, cross, and resurrection of Jesus causes “a structural shift in [Paul’s] whole pattern of beliefs.”[13] Third, and finally, one must note the ways in which Paul incorporates the Spirit into the character of God.[14] Thus, we can conclude that Christ and the Spirit redefine both the people of God and the one true God.[15]
Therefore, over against the worship of the Jews, which Paul sees as fundamentally marked by the rejection of Jesus as the Christ, Paul’s communities embrace Jesus as Lord.[16] Indeed, because true worship has been rethought in light of Jesus and the Spirit, we discover that the worship practiced by Judaism is, according to Paul, “compromised with paganism.”[17] Thus, in Gal 4.1-11, Jewish worship becomes a means by which one is enslaved under the old gods, and it ceases to be a badge of those who know, and are known by, the one true God.
The fundamental outward expression of this badge within Paul’s community is confession. As Wayne Meeks asserts, it is confession of Jesus as Lord that is the “absolute boundary marker” between Christians and pagans, and it is the “distinctive boundary marker” between Christians and Jews.[18] Those who belong to Paul’s communities are most fundamentally demarcated by the confession that “Jesus is Lord.”[19] While the pagans are marked by idolatry and the worship of “many gods” and “many lords,” and while the worship of the Jews is fatally compromised because it rejects the Lordship of Jesus, Paul’s communities are marked by worship of one God, the Father, and one Lord, Jesus, and they make this confession by the power of the one Spirit.[20]
________
[5] N. T. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant: Christ and the Law in Pauline Theology (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 2; What Saint Paul Really Said, 59, 65-67; Paul, 91-101.
[6] For other explicitly monotheistic statements in Paul cf. esp. Ro 3.30; 1 Cor 8.6; Gal 3.20; 1 Thes 1.9.
[7] Cf. Wayne A. Meeks, The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul (New Haven: Yale University Press), 165.
[8] It is almost redundant to identify “pagans” as “idolaters” but the point must be made because it has often been overlooked that this idolatry is, from Paul’s perspective, a fundamental identity-marker of a particular (i.e. pagan) community. Cf. 1 Cor 5.9-11; 6.9-10; 12.2; 2 Cor 6.16; Gal 5.19-20; Eph 5.5; Col 3.5; 1 Thes 1.9. A number of these references occur in so-called “vice lists” which will be further evaluated in Section III.
[9] Larry W. Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 234; cf. 234-53.
[10] Richard Bauckham, God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 69 et passim.
[11] Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 125-29.
[12] Cf. Ro 4.24; 2 Cor 4.14; 2 Cor 1.9; Gal 1.1; Col 2.2; 1 Thes 1.10.
[13] Meeks, 180; cf. Wright, The Climax of the Covenant, 89; Michael Gorman, Cruciformity: Paul’s Narrative Spirituality of the Cross (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004), 18.
[14] Cf. esp. 1 Cor 12.14-6; Gal 4.4-6; Eph 4.4-6.
[15] Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 73-74; cf. Bauckham, 76-77.
[16] On Paul’s understanding of the rejection of Christ as an identity marker of Judaism cf. Ro 9.32-33; 1 Cor 1.23.
[17] Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said, 137.
[18] Meeks, 164-80; cf. Rudolph Schnackenburg, The Church in the New Testament (trans. W. J. O’Hara; London: Burns & Oates, 1965), 130; Judith M. Gundry Volf, Paul & Perseverance: Staying In and Falling Away (Louisville: WJKP, 1990), 156.
[19] Cf. Ro 10.9-10; 1 Cor 12.3.
[20] Cf. 1 Cor 12.3; Gunther Bornkamm, Paul (trans. D. M. G. Stalker; New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 180; Gordon D. Fee, Paul, the Spirit, and the People of God (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1996), 88. This is also the point at which one should explore the role of the sacraments as further expressions, alongside of confession, of the Christian badge of worship. However, given the complexities of the debate about the role of the sacraments in Paul’s theology, and given the limited scope of this article, we must leave that point aside.

Christians: neither Pagans, nor Jews: “Badges of Membership” in Paul’s Epistles
I. INTRODUCTION
One of the most provocative arguments generated by members of “the New Perspective on Paul” (NPP) is that which asserts that the phrases “works of the law” and “justification by faith,” as they appear in Paul’s epistles, generally refer to “badges of membership” and do not refer to the opposition of a (supposedly Jewish) merit theology to a (supposedly Christian) theology of grace.[1] Those who make this assertion, like James Dunn and Tom Wright, tend to adopt a more nuanced version of Ed Sanders’ proposal that first-century Judaism is best described as “covenantal nomism.”[2] Hence, “badges of membership” are those things which reveal a person’s membership within a particular community.
While this article accepts the basic conclusions of Dunn and Wright (and others), it also asks whether or not this thought has been carried far enough. This article will argue that the language of “badges” is far more prevalent in Paul’s letters, and goes well beyond the (rather narrow) boundaries of the justification discussion between neo/Lutherans and members of the NPP.
That the language of “badges” should be found to be more prevalent in Paul’s epistles should not be a surprise. After all, Paul is emphatic that it is his vocation to be God’s apostle to the Gentiles.[3] Therefore, if in Galatians and Romans, Paul is speaking of badges that define Christian communities over against Jewish communities, the reader should also expect other passages where Paul defines Christian communities over against pagan communities. Those who have sought to recover the essential Jewishness of Paul, over against nineteenth century voices who sought to root Paul exclusively within Hellenism, have tended to neglect this point. When one thinks of Paul strictly within Jewish categories, then it seems natural to elevate the discussion of “justification by faith” and “works of the law” to a place of near total dominance. However, it must be recalled that Paul (the Jew) was thoroughly defined by his mission to and among the Gentiles. Thus, Wright is quite correct in arguing that “Paul’s main polemical target is not Judaism, as has so often been thought… but paganism.”[4] Therefore, it becomes necessary to place the discussion of “badges of membership” within a more comprehensive context.
This article will explore what Paul identifies as the badges of membership of his Christian communities over against the badges that Paul ascribes to pagan communities and Jewish communities. We will begin by exploring the fundamental badge of worship and will then move to exploring inspirational badges, ontological badges and, finally, relational badges, wherein Paul’s discussion of this topic reaches its appropriate climax and summation.
________
[1] Cf. James D. G. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 635-39; N. T. Wright, What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Saul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997), 113-33.
[2] E. P. Sanders, Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1977), 419-28.
[3] Cf. Ro 1.1-6; 11.13; 15.15-17; Gal 1.11-16a; 2.7-9; Eph 3.1-8. Cf. Ro 1.13; 1 Cor 1.1-2; 9.1-2; 15.9-11; 2 Cor 1.1; 11.4-7; Gal 1.1-2; 2.2; Eph 1.1; Col 1.1-2.
[4] N. T. Wright, Paul: in Fresh Perspective (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2005), 85; cf. What Saint Paul Really Said, 78-79; L. H. Marshall, The Challenge of New Testament Ethics (New York: The MacMillan Co., 1947), 278.

What is to give light must endure burning.
~ Victor Frankl
On November 11, 1983, Sebastian Acevedo, a fifty year old construction worker and father of two, doused himself in gasoline at the foot of the cross in front of the cathedral in Concepcion, Chile. His children had been “disappeared” by Pinochet's torture squads and, despite his desperate pleas, he was unable to gain any information as to their whereabouts. Covered in gasoline, he cried “Give me back my children!” but instead of receiving his kids back, a policeman responded by challenging him to carry through on his threat. Acevedo struck a match, ignited “like a torch” and died later that day — after learning that one of his children had been released. A priest gave him his last rites and captured his final words on a tape recorder:
I want the CNI [Central Nacional de Informaciones] to return my children. Lord, forgive them, and forgive me too for this sacrifice.
And that was the end of Sebastian Acevedo. A father with no record of his children, but with a certainty of what the State did to those it “disappeared,” he burned to death at the foot of a cross. But then something new happened. A movement was launched — The Sebastian Acevedo Movement against Torture was born, and became Chile's first well-orchestrated mass movement of public resistance against torture. They publicly named victims, they revealed clandestine torture centers and the complicity of other sectors of government, and they shattered the veil of silence and invisibility that gave the torturers so much of their power.
Sebastian did not know that his death would launch such a movement. All he knew was that his children had been disappeared and were being tortured, and that there was nothing, absolutely nothing, that he could do about that situation. Except, perhaps, take his own life in such a horrible way that his voice might be heard (this, of course, is the same form of protest that was taken by some Buddhist monks during the Vietnam war — I think we all remember the pictures).
A few days ago, I wrote a few theses on non/violence and argued that, if we accept the criteria that some Christians have historically accepted for the justification of violence, then we would be obligated to take up arms against our governments and various multinational corporations.
However, the notion of acting violently against others, does not sit well with a religion founded upon the proclamation of forgiveness and the command to love one's enemies (notice, even as Sebastian dies, he asks God to forgive even the torturers!). But there is another option, one that is much less discussed. This is the option taken by Sebastian Acevedo, and by the Buddhist monks in Vietnam. There is the option of taking that violence onto one's self, and publicly showing the Powers, and the apathetic classes, the extent of what is going on around them. When all our peaceful avenues for change have been exhausted and revealed as impotent, when our voices will not be heard, and when we constantly see our children, and the children of others, disappeared and tortured, then perhaps we must begin to think seriously about this other option.
Of course, the Powers have grown wise and they have learned that “the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church” and so they will not martyr us. They will let us grow old, they will let us “burn-out”, they will let us fade into impotence and anonymity. Perhaps, then, it is our duty to say, “No!” to this form of burn-out, perhaps it is our duty to say, “You have already martyred us by torturing and killing our loved ones, you have created a world that we are incapable of living in, you have already killed us” and then, perhaps, it is our duty to strike a match and burn-out in an entirely different way.
Because sometimes I wonder — sometimes I wonder if I will spend my whole life fighting a battle that I will always lose. And sometimes I wonder if the single act of self-immolation will do more good than a whole life spent losing to the Powers.
Because I too have seen the marks of torture on the bodies of children whom I love. And I too remember children that our society has disappeared and murdered. And all this that I have seen and touched is in our own backyards. When you increase your scope of vision to try and gain a global perspective on these things the degree of violence, torture, disappearances, and murders, is unthinkable.
In The Myth of Sisyphus, Albert Camus explores the topic of suicide. He considers suicide to be the “one true serious philosophical problem” because facing this issue forces us to face the fundamental philosophical issue of whether or not life is worth living. He argues that suicide amounts to a confession, a confession that “life is too much for you or that you do not understand it… that it 'is not worth the trouble'.” Despite his embrace of nihilism, and the total absence of hope, despite his “certainty of a crushing fate”, Camus argues that one still should live without resignation (such living, of course, is well exemplified in the life of Camus' protagonist in La Peste). To commit suicide is, according to Camus, to accept all of these things; to continue to live is to embrace the “absurd” revolt of defiance. This is why Sisyphus becomes the “absurd hero.” He knows the extent of his wretched condition and he scorns it. Thus, even as he carries his burden, he is happy.
In his embrace of nihilism, Camus is able to find that which allows him to keep on living. I wonder: does our embrace of Christianity ever lead us to a place where we are called to die? Perhaps the question is not: “Why should I remain alive?” but rather “Why should I not die?” Can suicide, rather than being an act of total acceptance of things as they are, be a cry of protest against the way things are — perhaps even the only cry that is now left to us? And can it be, as in the case of Sebastian Acevedo, a cry that changes that which used to be unchangeable? If it can be such an efficacious cry, should we embrace it?

Last December, I wrote a post on my materialism (cf. http://poserorprophet.livejournal.com/97365.html) and the convictions that I mentioned then have only further developed over the last year (especially given recent readings which have focused both on the simplicity and generosity of the early Christian churches, and the ravages imposed by contemporary consumption).
Now, I don't really buy a lot of things. I rarely buy clothes (about one item per year — usually socks), I don't really buy music (although, over the years, I built up a collection of approximately 100 CDs), I don't buy DVDs or any of those technological gadgets that people love to have (iPods, iPhones, whatever), but I do buy a helluva lot of books. In fact, on my last count, I had about 1100 books in my collection. Most I have read in full, others I have read in part and continue to refer to in my research, and some I have yet to read.
Now here's the thing: I like being the guy who has a lot of books. People can come to our house and, yep, be impressed by the scope and breadth of my reading. In fact, as I have continued to confront my materialism, I have realized that part of the attraction of building a personal library is building a brand-image for myself. Look at my fiction collection and you will see the great classics — Hugo, Dickens, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Cervantes, Joyce, Camus, etc. — alongside of more contemporary greats — Sinclair, Steinbeck, DeLillo, Pynchon, Eco, Atwood, etc. Look at my non-fiction and you will see theology, philosophy, psychology, literary criticism, biblical studies, social commentary, and counter-cultural voices, all represented.
Of course, a great deal of this ends up providing me with subtle (or not so subtle) opportunities to boost my ego. Hence you get a scenario like this:
Guest: “Oh, wow, you've read Joyce's Ulysses?”
Dan: “I read it but, man, what a terrible book [hence, I posit that I have a greater grasp on what counts as quality literature than most of the English departments in the world]. If you really want to read a book that will change the way you think about the world, then I suggest… [here I'll pull some lesser known title from the shelf, one my guest probably does not know, and in this why I will continue to impress them with the scope of my reading and my knowledge of lesser known gems].
Of course, I have been able to rationalize my book consumption in all sorts of other ways. Maybe my wife and I will have kids one day, and all my fiction (including the collection of children's literature that I own) would be a great resource for them. As for all my nonfiction, who knows what I'll be researching in the future, so I better hold on to all of those books. Indeed, if I'm going to teach in the future (because, who knows, maybe I will), then isn't owning thousands of books a prerequisite for teaching? Have you ever been in a professor's office that wasn't covered, wall to wall, with books?
Well, I no longer accept these rationalizations. Hoarding books, because of some potential future use, is no longer justified in my mind. Indeed, it was only after these rationalizations collapsed that I was able to discern just how much my ego was caught up in this. When I concluded that I needed to begin down-sizing my collection, and giving books to those who would read them now, it was the image thing that prevented me from acting. Sure, I'm not going to read Ulysses again (thank goodness), but it's nice to have it on my bookshelf. How stupid is that? Sure, I have enjoyed some of Hugo's stories (like Les Miserables and Notre Dame de Paris) but other works of his that I own (like Toilers of the Sea) I like to have on my shelf just so that I can demonstrate that I have read other, more obscure, works of Hugo, than the general crowd. Ridiculous, eh?
Consequently, I have finally started my book giveaway. Over the last few weeks I have given away approximately 150 books (mostly to family members — like giving my children's literature to my brothers' who have kids [what a concept!] — and to peers at my school). Mostly I just ask, “would you be interested in reading this book in the near future?” and if the answer is in the affirmative then the book has been given away. Other books, that were not taken by peers or family members, I have given to homeless fellows to resell at used book stores (oh, and I also gave them about 20 of my CDs).
It has been difficult process, but it has also been liberating. Along the way I have learned that one of the greatest challenges we face when confronting consumption, is the way in which consumption feeds our pride. The issue isn't so much that we are attached to our possessions; rather, the issue is that we become attached to the image that our possessions provide for us (is this what it means to be “possessed”?). It is this image that is the most difficult thing to sacrifice. But it is precisely this image that we must sacrifice as Christians.
Richard (of http://subrationedei.com/) has recently confronted his personal book consumption by formulating this rule: he can buy as many books as he wants, so long as the net total of books waiting to be read decreases every month (if he breaks this rule, he has provided himself with a rather hilarious form of punishment). My current plan is to continue to give away more books than I buy (and the same goes for CDs).
Consumerism will get us any way that it can — if we're not buying clothes, we're buying music; if we're not buying music we're buying gadgets; if we're not buying gadgets, we're buying books. It really doesn't care what we're buying, so long as we continue to buy. And not only buy, but hoard. This is my clothes collection, my music collection, my collection of gadgets, my collection of books. As Christians, I believe that we should be pursuing a trajectory that leads us to hold our things in common, both with those in the community of faith, and with those who have need. This (hopefully ongoing) book giveaway, is but one small step on that road. We can break the hold of consumerism over our lives, but that means that we must sacrifice the images we have constructed of ourselves, and be transformed into the image of the crucified Christ.